Imagine the formation of a spider's web. Isn't this like the numerous interconnecting threads in the preparation for a performance? To address each thread in detail would be far beyond the scope of this article. It is my intention, therefore, to concentrate on two of these threads. The first of these will be Personality Profile: the Musician and Links with Sport and second Stress Arousal and Anxiety in Performance: with specific reference to solo performance. (Perhaps the spider doesn't have these problems)! The personality and sport topics will be addressed first and separately. Then, I shall address the preparation of the solo performance and stress management. On this second topic, rather than proposing entirely my thoughts on preparation for performance and performance-stress, it seemed a more interesting and sensible notion to present a broader knowledge. Therefore, by means of interviews, I have gathered information from the experience of other musicians.

The interviewees are solo professional performers and teachers. They were chosen because they present variety and excellence in their training and extensive experience in performing and teaching. Amongst these are performers of instrumental specialisms outside the string family. I have included these deliberately so that we can learn the psychological performing techniques of as many musicians as possible.

Personality Profile: the Musician and Links with Sport

The main focus of this section concerns definitions of personality whilst paying separate attention to musicians and solo artistes. Information will be drawn from current literature on the psychology of music performance and related topics. (These are referenced at the end of the article). The importance of understanding personality profile is expressed succinctly by Anthony Kemp, a writer many of you may know as the author of the fascinating book "The Musical Temperament" (1996). He writes; "Such a profile might be viewed as a window into the musician's deeper psychology and as an indicator of the demands that the development of these musical skills constantly makes upon the individual. By addressing these kinds of questions we are able to develop a broader understanding about the nature of musicianship and the ways in which musical skill interrelates with temperament, thus providing a more comprehensive view of what musicians do and why. In other words, it is not only what people are able to do that determines their work but also what kind of people they are." (Kemp 1996. Preface). 

In his chapter 'Individual differences in musical behaviour,' he writes. "Clearly musicians engage in highly cognitive processes and execute exceedingly complex skills..............The development of these, in many respects, is dependent upon the existence or acquisition of unusual combinations of personality factors." (Kemp. 1997. In Hargreaves and North 1997. P. 25).

We will look at the manner in which personality factors interact with performance particularly drawing from the discipline of sport. Here the focus will be on stress, arousal and anxiety, in a performing situation.
The reason for including sport as a supporting topic is that both sport and music are, largely but not exclusively, performance related. Although there are many social differences in these two subjects, nevertheless, both disciplines require a high level of physical and mental (cognitive) preparation. Significant work has been carried out in sports' science studies, which serves to help its participants achieve their highest performance potential. Sports psychologists, dealing with sports performance, have addressed questions that are equally relevant to the musician-performer. Musicians could find germane help here. The August 2000 edition of the magazine of the Incorporated Society includes a feature by Carola Grindea on an International Symposium in Paris organised by Professor Raoul Tubiana, which supports this theory. (I.S.M. August 2000).

Unfortunately, not everyone shares this view. In his book Performing Music, Shared Concerns, Jonathan Dunsby (1997) describes a negative comparison between sport and music. It is evident that Dunsby's focus is on the actual performance of music but it is regrettable that he did not also take into consideration the intricate process through which a performance is achieved. We can conceivably acknowledge the fact that the social, emotional and expressive elements between the two disciplines are different but there is clearly more to sport than the final result of the race.

If we begin with the premise that the personality of the musician largely dictates how she/he will tackle this performance task, then it follows that we need to know the answer to this question. What is personality?

Personality structure exists on three fundamental levels. Picture a veneered piece of wood with three layers. The outside and most visible layer is the 'role-related behaviour'. Those who care to delve a little deeper see the next layer, 'typical responses,' and the innermost layer; the layer that shows what is really there is called the 'psychological core.' My son is studying sports' science at University and in his reading list I came across a book by Weinberg and Gould, "Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology." In the chapter "Personality and Sport" we read: "Getting to know the real person (psychological core) and typical modes of response produces insight into motivation, actions, and behaviour." (Weinberg and Gould 1995. P.38). 

The psychological core is the most difficult layer to penetrate and it is the most stable part of the personality, it stays more or less constant over time. There are three major approaches to personality; trait, situational (sometimes called state) and interactional (or social).

Trait Approach. This approach takes the view that the basic units of personality are relatively stable. The circumstances or situation a person finds him/herself in, will have little effect on his/her basic behavioural patterns. The most well known proponents of this theory, active in the 1960's and 1970's, were Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck. Eysenck took the view that traits were relative, the most important traits "ranging on continuums from introversion to extroversion and from stability to emotionality."
(Eysenck and Eysenck, 1968). Later we shall see that Anthony Kemp (1996) links introversion with the musical temperament.

Situation Approach. In contrast, this approach takes into account the situation or environment in which an individual finds him/herself. It proposes that behaviour is significantly determined by environment. The developmental psychologist Albert Bandura, developed the Social Learning Theory (1977). This is when behaviour is learned by modeling and social reinforcement. As an example; imagine a person who has the personality trait of shyness. This person sees someone in a dangerous situation and acts aggressively in order to protect them. On this occasion the situation has been the determining influence over the normal personality trait. The situation approach, like the trait approach, cannot stand on its own as a predictor of behaviour because both trait and state (situation) are interactional.

Interactional Approach. This is an approach, which considers trait and situation as co-determinants of behaviour. The studies of Bowers (1973) revealed that ''the interaction between persons and situations could explain twice as much behaviour as traits or situations alone.'' (Weinberg and Gould 1995. P40).

My earlier proposition, that sports' science studies offers significant help to the musician-performer, can be supported by the following example found in Weinberg and Gould (Ibid.). The example is taken from the studies of Fisher and Zwart (1982) on the effect of anxiety on athletes in different basketball situations: 

* With 2 seconds left and the score tied 70-70, you have just been fouled and your free throw might win the game.
* The crowd is very loud and directs most of its comments toward you.
* You have just made a bad play and your coach is criticising you.
* You are in the locker room after losing a game you really expected to win.

Given these situations, the athletes were asked to report to what degree they would react in these ways (worded as in the study): a. Get an uneasy feeling. b. React overemotionally. c. Want to avoid the situation
d. Get a "choking" feeling. e. Enjoy the challenge. Weinberg and Gould. P.40 (1995). Adapted from Vealey, R.S. (1986).

The individual's reactions are determined by their personality. One person who is by nature, anxious, might react by getting that "choking" feeling, whereas a more relaxed 'laid back' person might enjoy the challenge. The musical parallels to these situations are not difficult to imagine. Inventories of trait and state measurements can be found in the work of many psychologists and the following list might be of interest to those who wish to delve further
* The State-Trait Inventory. Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene (1970)
* The Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style. Nideffer (1976)
* The Profile of Mood States. McNair, Lorr and Droppleman (1971)
* The Eysenck Personality Inventory. Eysenck and Eysenck (1968)

Situation Specific Measures. This approach considers the personality of the individual and the specific situation (interactional approach). Let us turn our attention to studies in the field of music. We read in "Psychology for Performing Artists: Butterflies and Bouquets" by Glenn D. Wilson (1994) that Salmon et al. (1989) carried out situation specific tests to determine the timing of anxiety in music students prior to and during performance. Their findings ''suggest that experienced performers learn to let their arousal peak
sharply just before performance whereas less experienced performers suffer anticipatory anxiety which builds up over a long period of time and reaches its peak during the performance itself.'' (Wilson. 1994. P.191). 

The effects of these anxiety peaks were also measured and it was found that the anxiety of the inexperienced performer affected the performance as a negative fear reaction but the experienced performer was able to channel the anxiety into focused attention. In sport, a coach who has gathered together the personality profile of a player will then devise means of building up his/her strengths and eliminating the weaknesses. There is insufficient evidence to suggest that musicians have specific equivalent help available, except through the advice and experience of the instrumental teacher. This advice may not always be based on solid foundations.

Previously alluded to was Anthony Kemp's view, that the personality of the musician is essentially introspective, "..... musicians are generally characterized by a distinct tendency to be introverted. Bearing in mind the nature of their working environment, this is not a difficult notion to develop, although it may have several different facets" (Kemp. 1996. P.40.). 

Kemp then goes on to discuss findings that suggest that "the levels of introversion appear to be related to different levels of performing success." (P.40). He further suggests that brass players and singers show more extroversion than other musicians. And his conclusion is this. "The musician can be perceived as a bold introvert who possesses the capacity to be comfortable in solitude during long periods of practice but
at the same time is able to mobilise sufficient degrees of autonomy during performance." (P.50. Ibid.). It is revealing to note Anthony Kemp's final comments in his chapter 'Introversion'. 

It is pertinent to give this final paragraph to the reader. "The view developed here is that this reflects musicians' very special form of auditory style, which allows them to create an internal and imaginative world of sound, rich in symbolism and indispensable for creative activity in music. It also suggests that this aspect of musicians' temperament also links with motor imagery and refined levels of motor control, and it is speculated that this may have connections with arousal levels. Arousal theory suggests that introverts are superior at tasks that are perceived as boring and monotonous by the more extraverted. On the other hand they can suffer from over stimulation, and their performances can deteriorate more rapidly than those of extraverts under higher stress conditions." (P.50. Ibid.).

Now, a word about soloists.

Soloists. Although we have an idea of the personality profiles of musicians who work in orchestral situations, we have less idea about solo artists. Kemp gives us an indication about pianists, organists and singers. He suggests that they are "distinctly extraverted" (Kemp 1996. P.181. Kemp's Italics) and that they are distinguished from other musicians because of their "higher levels of conscientiousness and self-sentiment coupled with their distinct conservatism and lack of anxiety." (P.181. Ibid.). 

Singers, apparently show higher levels of extraversion, greater sensitivity and independence. Therefore, Kemp suggests, they are more composed and 'together.' The violinmaker and restorer, Adam Whone includes the following amusing article in his latest newsletter. "Singers are judged by different standards. It is an old saw that people are either gifted with musicianship or with a good voice; thus a singer exhibiting the slightest trace of artistic sensibility is welcomed by an orchestra however inadequate the voice may be." (Whone. 2000). 

He gives a general description of instrumental soloists as "a musician who, by virtue of an over-developed technique and an excess of individuality, is unsuited to playing in orchestras." (Ibid).

The performer-interviewees are soloists and orchestral musicians in various capacities. They are: Christopher Hirons. Violinist. Professor of Baroque Violin at the Royal College of Music. Caroline Bosanquet. Cellist, pianist, composer, lecturer. Damien Royannais. Saxophonist, string bassist, Nicholas Toller. Pianist, lecturer, composer. Elizabeth Wood. Singer, teacher. Michel Sedgwick. Trumpeter, teacher. Judith Brulo. Violist, teacher. Their mission - that of learning a piece for solo, chamber orchestra and conductor - was presented to them. Those questions relating to physical preparation and stress are embedded in the following text. There were seven interviews, five of which were conducted personally. In these five, the line of questioning was adapted to accommodate the flow of conversation but essentially each person's questioning covered the same material. The interview questions presented to Elizabeth Wood and Nicholas Toller, were conducted by e-mail.

CHRISTOPHER HIRONS: Violinist. 
(The interview took place in person and was recorded in real time, in longhand).

Do you have any ways in which you prepare physically? No.

Do you have any psychological preparation routines? No.

If the work is long and requires a lot of physical stamina, how do you handle that in the preparation stages? If you take the Brahms concerto as an example, it is very demanding, but I never feel a piece is physically
hard work. If you know how to relax, physically, when you are playing, then it's not tiring. If you are involved, the music takes you through, providing your basic technique will allow you to do it. If you have to work physically hard, then you are probably doing something wrong.

Do you get nervous, if so, how does this affect you and how do you handle it? Yes, I try to keep as quiet a day as I can. I have no objection to anyone taking whatever he needs in order to perform well. After all,
something like beta-blockers can't make you play the piece if you can't already play it anyway. It gives you the best chance to play it as well as you can.

How do you organise your practice on the day? Try to be quiet. Gentle practice, looking at bits. I don't eat.

CAROLINE BOSANQUET: 'Cellist. 
(The interview took place in person and was recorded in real time on tape).

When you are about to perform in a concert do you have any special ways of preparing physically both on the day of the concert and in the preceding weeks? "Yes. I do. I do Alexander Technique as a weekly thing. I do Alexander position and when I'm learning the technique of something, I relate it to movements that I have evolved from the Alexander Principle.

On the day of the concert I would do a bit of lying down in Alexander Position, because it's a good way of switching off and relaxing. It provides the postural benefits as well. I sometimes have a bath a short time before going off to a concert. That's a nice way of relaxing. I've got a regime of movements that I do with the arms, swinging in different directions and exploring all the joints, which is incidentally what I also do with total beginners in lesson one. All arms work in the same way whatever stage you are so it's, if I may use the term 'back to basics'. I use those Chinese exercise balls and the movements you can do with the hands, with those, are absolutely marvelous for limbering up the hands because it gets all the fingers and the thumbs coordinating with each other. It frees up the whole area of the hand and it also strengthens the fingers.

From the musical point of view, I quite often just play everything through, not in a 'performancy' way, but just reminding myself of it. Making sure I've got the right tempi in my mind.

I wouldn't want to have all the pieces rushing through my brain at top level, because you'd just get dizzy. I just like to have the first phrase of each movement, of each thing, exactly how it should be...that first phrase. If the first phrase is right then everything grows logically from it. I think the tempo thing is terribly important, much more than appears in lessons because you keep stopping in lessons. So metronome becomes very important

DAMIEN ROYANNAIS: Saxophone. 
(The interview took place in person and was recorded in real time on tape. The reader should bear in mind the French inflections in Damien's use of English. The parenthesis was inferred by Damien and is inserted to help to clarify the meaning).

What is the main focus in your mind when you perform a piece? To enjoy myself, that's the main thing.

The pressure of the performance? That's one thing about pressure. I think everybody is scared and it wouldn't be the same if you weren't scared. All your senses are 'in tune' and ready.

You said, "how do you prepare, psychologically." I think it's all about that, being receptive and able to give your best. I can't (allow myself to) be upset one or two days before. I have to be with people that I know I'm going to be able to cope with. If I'm in a good mood, I've been sleeping enough, I'm not tired (then I'm OK). Small things can upset me, they are more important just before a concert.

Do you allow your nervousness to peak before the concert or at the concert? It depends how important the event is. But sometimes I'm stressing and I don't know why. Even if it's a piece I know perfectly well and I know it's going to be fine. When you're ready you know you're ready, technically it's no problem. Sometimes I'm much more nervous, and I don't know why. But usually I'm nervous, probably one or two hours before. Then just before I go on I find it difficult to breathe, and things like that, but nothing mad. But after I start playing, after 30 seconds it's gone and I can enjoy myself.

Are there physical limitations when practicing the saxophone, as to how long you can play without having a break? The only point is with the lip because you hold the mouthpiece with it and you support the mouthpiece with it. If you are used to it you could do six, seven hours a day. Do you have any routines to help you with your posture? No. I never had to do anything. I had a problem with my back because of the double bass, not because of the saxophone. I go to the swimming pool to try to something different because you're always playing in the same position and there is the weight on your neck.

Are there problems for the fingers, for example repetitive strain injury or tendonitis? You do have that on the soprano saxophone if you are not used to the position because you do everything with supporting the instrument on the hands. With the alto sax, the weight is on the neck. We were encouraged by our teachers in Paris to go to Alexander technique but I didn't feel I needed it at the time.

NICHOLAS TOLLER: Pianist. 
(The interview was conducted by e-mail).

Physical preparation. Nothing particular - more a case of avoiding things like corkscrews and knives.

Psychological preparation. Nothing conscious. Stamina. Never worry about this, well, not yet anyway. The day. Take it as gently as possible - cancel teaching if possible. Nervous. Yes, but not in a disabling sense. I try to focus my thoughts entirely on the music, especially my favoirite passages. Organisation of practice. I do it in short bursts of about half an hour at a time. I dislike getting stiff in the back and wrists, and so go off for a cup of tea quite frequently.

What do I focus my attention on during performance? I try to live, and therefore hopefully to project musical feelings in all their various shades during the performance assuming there are no major technical problems. This is how I felt while playing the Brahms A major violin sonata in a concert recently, for example.

ELIZABETH WOOD: Singer. 
(The interview was conducted by e-mail).

Physical preparation. I ensure I'm not too tired and I do breathing exercises. Physical stamina for a long work. I will work on the really demanding bits more than the others, so that they become easier. Mental preparation. I have to convince myself that I can sing the music. Physical preparation. I ensure I'm not too tired and I do breathing exercises.

Has your approach changed? Obviously, as one matures a bank of knowledge is built up about performance practice, so I guess I'm more relaxed about it all.

Nervousness. Yes but I try to overcome this by trying to convince myself that I will be OK. I think an element of nervousness gives an edge to the performance. I have never been so nervous that the stress was too great to handle. It is really only an hour or two before the performance, and I'm fine as soon as the performance starts. On the day. Spend it as restfully as possible. There is usually an afternoon rehearsal and then I try to relax, go through the music one more time, and breathe deeply! I hate having to be polite to people giving me tea.

MICHEL SEGWICK: Trumpeter. 
(The interview took place in person and was recorded in real time, in longhand).

Physical preparation. To handle the physical stamina required for the performance, I play through the work three weeks prior to the concert, every day at the set time of the concert. I also do it in different temperatures. Also I stop smoking. In general I keep fairly physically fit. I play football and squash. But I would do it more so. On the day of the concert. I take it easy. Warm up in the morning (having done a full run through on the day before). Top and tail prior to the performance. I make a point of doing breathing exercises prior to the performance both for playing and for the calming effects. (But that is part
of what we do anyway).

Nerves. I don't take any drugs like Beta-Blockers.

JUDITH BRULO: Violist & Teacher.
 (I recorded my responses to the same set of questions on the word processor).

Physical preparation. As a routine, I try to do some limbering up exercises with neck, shoulders and arms. I had Alexander training, whilst at the Guildhall School of Music, but that was a long time ago, 1969 to 1973. Then I took another intensive course recently. This was invaluable after a severe back problem. I've also had some useful exercise tips for strengthening the back and stomach muscles, from the Sports' Injury Clinic at Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge. It was here that I came across a girl who had done near-permanent damage to the tendons in her wrists because of excessive violin practice. The Consultant was careful to point out the need for musicians to have a greater respect for their bodies! I am convinced that physical preparation is crucial for the long-term welfare of the musician. I stress long-term because musicians usually begin their careers during their early years when the body is still developing. Damage through body mismanagement can creep in at this stage without it being immediately apparent and then the bad habits formed in these early stages may be extremely difficult to adjust later on. 

When the body is functioning at its optimum level I find that the results of practice and performance are significantly improved. The sound quality improves because there is greater physical flexibility and sensitivity. There is the potential to respond and adjust bow speed, bow weight, left hand agility, variation in vibrato speed and vibrato width. One has the possibility to provide a more varied palette of tone-colours. Mental Preparation. This is integral to the practice and is inextricably linked to physical preparation. I know that if I have prepared thoroughly, then there is a greater possibility that I'll be confident. If it is a very challenging concerto, like the Bartok viola concerto, then I begin practising many months in advance. This long-term approach is necessary for me because I am not performing concertos as a matter of routine, week by week.

On the day. The night before, I try to have a good night's sleep. I cancel/rearrange my teaching and try to have a relaxed beginning to the day. In the morning I practice gently, the 'naughty' bits. I try not to play anything in a "performancy'' way (as Caroline puts it). I think the piece through musically and enjoy my favorite bits, imagining the sound I want to produce and the colours I want to achieve. Nerves. Yes, I get nervous. I try to channel the nervous energy, (which, when you think about it, is just another form of energy) into creative energy. I think about the music and try to give the audience pleasure. When I'm on stage I focus on the music and the sounds and colours I want to make, so that I can bring out the shape of the music.

The performer who is aware of his/her personality type will be better equipped to find a remedy or a mixture of remedies for performance stress, thus enabling him/her to have the freedom to perform comfortably and creatively. Methods of preparation for performance stress are available for performers who operate in a variety of skills, even pistol shooting - as the mother of one of my students informed me, (I must remember to be nice to her daughter). These methods are outlined below.

Drugs. Alcohol, valium and marijuana, which are 'anxiolytic' drugs, can give the performer, himself, the feeling of wellbeing but the audience may come away with a different view. As time goes on, the need for greater dose increases and dependency results. The end result is neither helpful for ones health or ones performance. The Beta-Blocker, Propranolol, has proved to be effective in controlling the adrenal based effects such as butterflies, bow tremor, sweating etc. Sometimes it can produce a dry mouth, sleep disturbance, nausea, depression. However, the performances of musicians can be enhanced. Psychological methods are the best recourse. Amongst them are:

Progressive Muscular Relaxation. This is a technique, which was devised by Jacobson in 1929. It is a method whereby the client proceeds through the body, asking the various muscle groups to relax. Usually it begins at the extremities of the body. The client is asked to breathe deeply, saying 'relax' as he/she breathes out.

Biofeedback. This is a way of monitoring mental relaxation. Seeing the progress one is making, encourage positive responses. There are computer programmes available. RelaxPlus, devised by Geake (1992), is one such programme.

Meditation. This has its origins in the East and was originally connected to Yoga. The client has to adopt a certain sitting position and repeat a word, called a mantra. This has the effect of slowing down the vital functions of the body; heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and metabolism. Autogenic Training

This also functions by means of the repetition of certain phrases. These are more direct than the mantra and aimed to produce specific body response. The client uses phrases such as ''my arms are feeling heavy'' etc. The aim is that of passive concentration and is permissive rather than compulsive Hypnotic Suggestion.

This form of suggestion therapy uses deep hypnotic trance, in which the therapist suggests to the client, feelings of heaviness of limbs and eyelids. Deep slow breathing, sleepiness and attention to the voice of the
therapist. Whilst in this state suggestions to relax are particularly effective. Suggestions can be made to the client that they are successful performers, able to play with great ease and confidence, and that the audience loves them. Positive self-talk and success imagery is planted into the subconscious. This help is available at home through tapes. It should be noted that some people might not be good hypnotic subjects.

Aerobic Exercise.  Aerobic exercise is good for you! Encouraging a moderately increased heart rate for about half an hour can be of positive benefit to conquering depression and anxiety. The brain produces opiates - endorphins, which help to reduce pain and give a feeling of well-being. Holmes and McGilley (1987) suggest that exercise encourages resistance to psychological stress. We must include here, the benefits of sleep. This is equally important in helping to cope with stress. It is very important to have some early nights prior to a performance. Going to bed in the afternoon, before the evening performance is very beneficial. Some of the interviewees do this, as I do too.

Alexander Technique. Alexander technique aims to restore the balance of the whole body, thus enabling the muscle groups to function at their most efficient capacity. Although this is not a relaxation technique, the feeling of control and well-being it encourages, gives the performer greater and efficiency and therefore confidence, in performance. It is very tempting to work the muscles hard in our effort to perform well. However, we have all experienced the phenomenon whereby not trying so hard produces better results. This study, from the realm of sport, is an example, which supports the Alexander Principle.

''In a study conducted with 400-meter runners, the runners were first asked to run all out (i.e., give 110%). A few days later, the same runners were asked to run at 95% of their capacity. Interestingly enough, the runners ran faster at 95% than at 110%. Why this happens involves the effect that muscle tension can have on skilled performance. Specifically, when running at 110% runners were using all their energies and muscular capacities. However, running - like most other sport activities - is performed most effectively when some muscles are contracting while others are relaxing. Thus, by using all of their muscles, agonists and antagonists, the runners were using muscles that prevented them from running as fast as they could.
Running at 95%, they expended a great deal of muscular effort but relaxed the antagonist muscles that could hinder performance.'' (Weinberg and Gould 1995. p.265).

Cognitive Orientation.  A study by Wolverton and Salmon (1991) suggests that in any situation, we have a limited amount of attention allocation. In the musical performance situation this could mean three possibilities. The self. How do I look? Is my playing up to my standard? The audience. What are their reactions? Do they look as if they are enjoying it? The music. Concentration on technical passages, interpretation. "Wolverton and Salmon found that absorption in the artistic work itself was associated with the lowest levels of anxiety. Almost certainly this would also go along with optimal performance.'' (Wilson 1994. P.199).

Cognitive therapy, therefore, would encourage the client to focus on the musical interpretation, rather that the self or the audience. Recall the interviewees in the study. All reported the importance of concentration on the musical interpretation. ''The music takes you through.'' (Christopher Hirons)

Correlation between Sports Psychology and Music Psychology

Stress Inoculation. This is a system, which does not deny feelings of anxiety or worry. Instead it channels and makes constructive use of these feelings. They are "'reframed' as less threatening, even desirable, reactions.'' (Wilson 1994. P.200).

If a performer catastrophises, the result may be that he/she avoids anything to do with the performance, even to the extent of avoiding practicing. Stress inoculation helps the performer to acknowledge that this is a positive way of highlighting an area of preparation, which needs to be attended to. The signs of increased heart beat, sweating, shallow breathing are reshaped and seen as normal and inconspicuous to the onlooker and of benefit to the excitement of the performance. This gradual exposure, combined with relaxation can be used to help the performer see the symptoms of stress as less threatening.

Self - Talk: 'Psyche yourself up.' This is good therapy! So often it is easy to remember the destructive comments that were made in the past. The harsh word that stays with us throughout our lives and comes to haunt us when we are under scrutiny. It is often the case that, in performance we have inner conversations with the critical parent or professor. I remember talking this problem through with a counseller. She asked me whether any of these damaging comments were justified, in the light of all the many other positive and encouraging comments that had come from people, for whom others and I had respect.

Goal Imaging. Some performers are more disposed towards visual imagery rather than self-talk. I remember reading an inspiring book about Jacqueline DuPre, and subsequently reflecting on her 'oneness' with the 'cello. There almost seemed to be an unbreakable link between her soul and her instrument. I finished the book a few hours before I was due to do a recital. I was able to implant that image in my mind and this helped me to think beyond myself, beyond the instrument, through to the music. This form of imagery can be used in hypnosis too.

Mental rehearsal is also valuable. It is frequently used in sport where the athlete pictures the moves he/she will make. I have found this extremely valuable too. Flying from Cyprus to Thessaloniki to do a Concerto, I was unable to have time to practice individually because of the schedule. During the flight, with the music in front of me, I visualised playing each note and each shift. (Some notes were out of tune)! The result was that I felt very comfortable and secure in the performance. Self-talk and goal imaging have, in common, optimism. "Those who envisage success, whether it be in sport, business, or on stage are more likely to perform at their best. The trick is to 'picture it perfect.' '' (Wilson 1994. P.201).

Self -Handicapping.  Setting up excuses for failure, deliberately sabotaging the performance, for example, having too much to drink the night before. The performer can then say that they would have done better if it hadn't have been for this or that. The need for excuses can snowball and this is where the danger lies. In rehearsals it is common to hear a player saying that they have never seen the music before. This negative approach often leads to self-fulfilling prophecy. The antidote is to recognise it when it occurs and then replace it with positive strategies.

Summary of Instrumentalists' Contributions and Conclusion

The performers' stress management techniques have been developed and moulded through experience and they are tailored to the individual's personality. Just taking a selection of examples from the interviews; Elizabeth (singer) presents as a calm personality with considerable interpersonal skills. She is a very experienced performer and teacher. Before a performance, she uses 'self-talk' to convince herself that her performance is going to be successful and has learned to regulate the performance arousal level for optimum effect. This arousal regulation is true for the performers interviewed for this study and appears present in most experienced performers, thus supporting the view of G. Wilson (1994). For physical preparation, musicians who (by the nature of their instrument) rely on the breath, develop a regime of breathing exercises. In Michel's case (trumpeter) his preparation also includes aerobic sporting activities. 

This exercise is part of his routine for Michel's normal practice schedule, but particularly important prior to performance. The other instrumentalists often do arm movements - the equivalent of breathing. So in a sense, some things are parallel. For example, amongst other strategies, Caroline (cellist) has a very well worked out preparation regime of arm exercises adapted from the Alexander Principle. Christopher Hirons (violinist) is an eminent and well-respected soloist and orchestral leader. He is extrovert, ebullient and warm-hearted. He is happiest in a leadership capacity. Although it appears that Chris requires very little physical and mental preparation, on the day of the performance he likes to rest and take things quietly. 

His violinistic preparation is careful and thorough - although he's not really a solitary person. His talent and experience enables him to find efficient and creative ways of working. He is a very relaxed person and finds violin playing a very natural experience. Damien, the youngest of the interviewees (saxophonist) appears to match Anthony Kemp's view of the bold introvert. He enjoys practising for extended periods and is not happy when his practice routine is thwarted. In performance he projects an extrovert image. He enjoys company but it has to be of the right sort, just before he performs.

In this article I have attempted to show first, the importance of the correlation of psychology studies in sports' performance, to music performance. Second, to show the necessity of performers to be aware of their personality type in order that they might find benefit in developing a system for managing the physical demands of performance and performance related stress. These are just two of the many threads in the complicated web of performance.

But there is a third point to make. When we are teaching our students there is often the prospect of a performance lurking around the corner. Perhaps we could endeavour to be more aware of the personality types in our students and thus help them to find a formula to deal with their individual performance-preparation needs.

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